Jupiter’s Spot Gives It A Hot Flush

                                                                    

It is the biggest storm in the solar system. Now scientists have found it acts as an underfoot heater for a mysterious hotspot high above our sun’s biggest planet.

US astronomers have discovered that Jupiter’s “great red spot”, a swirling morass of shifting colours up to three times as wide as Earth, is teleporting heat to the sparse air 800km above it.

The discovery, reported this morning in the journal Nature, explains why Jupiter’s upper atmosphere is ferociously hot despite being so far from the sun. The findings suggest a previously unknown form of energy transmission may be lighting up some of the coldest places in the cosmos.

Scientists have long wondered why the upper atmospheres of the gas giants — Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune — are hundreds of degrees hotter than models say they should be. Lead author James O’Donoghue, of Boston University, told The Australian that temperatures above Jupiter exceeded 600C — roughly on par with Earth’s outer atmosphere, even though Jupiter is about five times as far from the sun and receives only 3 per cent as much sunlight.

The mystery, which astronomers have termed the “energy crisis”, has baffled them for more than 40 years. The Boston team tackled it by sampling temperatures in different zones of Jupiter’s upper atmosphere, compiling nine hours of infra-red readings from a telescope on a Hawaiian mountain.

“We could see almost immediately that our maximum temperatures at high altitudes were above the great red spot,” Dr O’Donoghue said.

Discovered in the 17th century, the spot is a massive hurricane thought to have been raging for more than 300 years. It spins at up to 360kmh, with no land to stop it, although its size and colour have varied over the centuries.

The team believes sound waves above the giant storm are radiating upwards and heating the atmosphere far above. A similar phenomenon has been observed above thunderstorms in the Andes Mountains, it says.

Dr O’Donoghue said the acoustic waves appeared to be teaming up with “gravity waves” in a combination never previously observed.

 Gravity waves, which are distinct from Einstein’s gravitational waves, are oscillations caused by gravity’s effects in atmospheres and oceans.
He said the densities of the upper atmospheres of any planet were incredibly low, making very high temperatures “easily achievable”. “You wouldn’t burn your hand in these atmospheres because not enough gas would be in contact with you,” he noted.

By John Ross
With many thanks to The Australian

What Was the Enlightenment?

                                                                    

                                                                   
 
The Enlightenment, also known as the Age of Reason, was a philosophical movement that took place primarily in Europe and, later, in North America, during the late 17^thand early 18^thcentury. Its participants thought they were illuminating human intellect and culture after the "dark" Middle Ages. Characteristics of the Enlightenment include the rise of concepts such as reason, liberty and the scientific method. Enlightenment philosophy was skeptical of religion — especially the powerful Catholic Church — monarchies and hereditary aristocracy. Enlightenment philosophy was influential in ushering in the French and American revolutions and constitutions. 

Historians disagree on precisely when the Enlightenment began, though most agree that the Enlightenment's origins are tied to the Scientific Revolution in the 1600s, according to the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. The Enlightenment culminated in the French Revolution (1789-1799) and was followed by the Romantic period.  

Major figures of the Enlightenment include Voltaire, John Locke, Thomas Hobbes, David Hume, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Adam Smith, Immanuel Kant, Isaac Newton and Thomas Jefferson. 

The Scientific Revolution

"The origins of the philosophical ideas that would lead to the Enlightenment began during the Thirty Years War (1618-1648)," said Susan Abernethy, a Colorado-based historian and writer. "This was a long and bloody conflict fought mostly over religion and caused a great deal of social disruption. Men started to question and criticize the concepts of nationalism and warfare." 
The Age of Exploration, in which Columbus "discovered" the New World, "exposed men to other philosophies and cultures," said Abernethy. "And finally, after centuries of exploitation and abuse by monarchies and the church, regular citizens of Europe were exasperated and began to write and speak up."

"In addition, the ideas of the Renaissance led men to examine the tangible world more closely, which led to greater scientific study," Abernethy said. This movement is known as the Scientific Revolution. 

The Scientific Revolution began with the publication of Nicolaus Copernicus' heliocentric (sun-centered) universe theory in 1543. The many discoveries of the Scientific Revolution include Johann Kepler's three laws of planetary motion, Galileo Galilei's theories of motion and inertia and Tycho Brahe's new view of the stars and how they work, according to the history department at Indiana University Northwest. The Scientific Revolution ended with Isaac Newton's discovery of the law of gravitation and understanding of a mechanical universe in the late 1600s.

With each new scientific discovery, the accepted Judeo-Christian understanding of the universe changed. Gradually, thinkers embraced the Copernican-Newtonian paradigm. This paradigm holds that while the God created the universe, science defined it, and it is through science that humans can understand it, according to Indiana University Northwest. Intellectuals began to see the universe as possibly infinite and full of motion. This paradigm set the stage for Enlightenment philosophy and the embrace of mankind's rational thoughts. 

Philosophical concepts

"During the Enlightenment, there was more emphasis on scientific methods, secularization of learning, religious tolerance, universal education, individual liberty, reason, progress and the separation of church and state," said Abernethy. Some key Enlightenment concepts are:
Reason: Enlightenment philosophers believed that rational thought could lead to human improvement and was the most legitimate mode of thinking. They saw the ability to reason as the most significant and valuable human capacity, according to PBS. Reason could help humans break free from ignorance and irrationality, and learning to think reasonably could teach humans to act reasonably, as well. Enlightenment philosophers saw reason as having an equalizing effect on humanity, because everyone's thoughts and behavior would be guided by reason. 

Enlightenment intellectuals thought that all human endeavors should aim to increase knowledge and reason, rather than elicit emotional responses. They advocated for universal education and secularized learning, said Abernethy.

Skepticism:Rather than being content with blind faith, Enlightenment thinkers wanted proof that something was true. They tested popular notions with scientifically controlled experiments and personal experience, though skepticism of one's own senses was another factor in Enlightenment thought, and caused complicated philosophical conundrums, according to the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 

Enlightenment intellectuals were skeptical of the divine right of kings and monarchies in general, scientific claims about the natural world, the nature of reality and religious doctrine. "Theologians sought to reform their faith during the Enlightenment while maintaining a true faith in God," said Abernethy. The deist movement became popular during the Enlightenment. Deism holds that God exists but does not intervene on Earth. The universe proceeds according to natural, scientifically based laws. Several of America's Founding Fathers were deists, including Thomas Jefferson. 

Religious tolerance:Though skeptical of religious institutions, many Enlightenment thinkers believed that people should be free to worship as they wished. "The intellectuals of the Enlightenment vigorously sought to restrict the political power of organized religion in an effort to curtail the outbreak of intolerant religious wars," said Abernethy. 

Liberty:The Enlightenment tolerance of religion is related to the movement's emphasis on personal liberty. This concept holds that God and/or nature gave all humans basic rights and humans should be free to act without oppressive restriction. "These philosophers emphasized that government had no authority over an individual's conscience," Abernethy explained. "Individuals had rights, all men were equal and legitimate political power is based on the consent of the people and is obligated to be representative of the people's will."

Progress:The centuries before the Enlightenment were characterized by rapid changes, from the discoveries of the Scientific Revolution to the exploration of the world and the advancement in art technique during the Renaissance. Largely because of this, Enlightenment thinkers believed that the human condition was improving over time. Philosophers like David Hume and Adam Smith, both Scotsmen, tied Enlightenment ideals to politics, economic policies and more, according to the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

Empiricism vs. rationalism:Empiricism is associated with British Enlightenment philosophers, including John Locke, George Berkeley and Hume. Empiricists argued that all human knowledge comes through the senses and sensory experiences. Rationalists, who lived primarily in continental Europe, argued that senses were untrustworthy and knowledge came from the mind, through conceiving of or intuiting ideas, according to Loyola University New Orleans.  

Toward the end of the period, philosophers began to consider exactly what they meant by the term "enlightenment." German philosopher Immanuel Kant offered this definition in his essay "What Is Enlightenment?": 

Enlightenment is man's emergence from his self-imposed nonage [many interpret nonage as "immaturity"]. Nonage is the inability to use one's own understanding without another's guidance … Dare to know! Have the courage to use your own understanding," is therefore the motto of the enlightenment.

Major figures

Abernethy discussed the following men who made significant contributions to the Enlightenment:

John Comenius (1592-1670) was a Czech intellectual who espoused universal education and practical instruction. He was instrumental in introducing pictorial textbooks written in the vernacular of the student rather than Latin. He advocated for lifelong learning and the development of logical thinking as opposed to memorization by rote. He wanted education to be given to women and impoverished children.  

The Dutchman Hugo Grotius (1583-1645) was a prodigious intellectual who laid the foundation for international law based on the concept of natural law. He was one of the pioneers in putting forth the idea of a society of states governed not by force and warfare but by laws and mutual agreement to enforce those laws. He also espoused the idea of religious tolerance.

Englishmen who were influential in the Enlightenment include Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) and John Locke (1632-1704). Hobbes championed absolutism for the sovereign but he believed in the right of the individual and the equality of all men. He stated that political communities should be based on a "social contract" meaning individuals consent either explicitly or tacitly to surrender some of their freedoms and submit to the authority of the ruler (or to the decision of the majority) in exchange for the protection of their remaining rights. Locke promoted the opposite type of government, which was a representative government.

The French Philosophes (philosophers) took the Enlightenment to new heights. Charles-Louis de Secondat, better known as the Baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755), developed the work of John Locke and espoused the concept of the separation of power by creating divisions in government. François-Marie Arouet (1694-1778), better known asVoltaire, was a prolific writer who used satire and criticism to incite social and political change. He wrote attacks on the Catholic Church and exposed injustices. He promoted the concepts of freedom of religion, freedom of expression and the separation of church and state. His writings were popular and reached many readers.  

Jean-Jacques Rousseau(1712-1778) wrote the book "The Social Contract," in which he championed for a form of government based on small, direct democracy, which openly signifies the will of the population.

Denis Diderot (1713-1784) was not as interested in inciting revolution but wanted to collect and disseminate Enlightenment knowledge. He embarked on a mammoth project to create the "Encyclopaedia, or a Systemic Dictionary of the Sciences, Arts, and Crafts." Many writers contributed to the 35-volume work, which as edited by Diderot and Jean le Rond d'Alembert. The "Encyclopaedia" would incorporate all of the world's knowledge and spread it to other countries all over the world.

David Hume (1711-1776) was a Scottish philosopher who gained fame as an essayist, according to the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. He was a highly influential empiricist who argued that humans were a bundle of sensations with no true selves (this is called the Bundle Theory) and that ethics were based on emotion rather than moral principles.

Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) was a German philosopher central to the Enlightenment. He synthesized rationalism and empiricism through his theories about human autonomy and set the stage for later philosophical movements, according to the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

Adam Smith (1723-1790), a close friend of Hume, was a Scottish philosopher and economist most famous for his theory of the "invisible hand of the market," according to the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. His book "The Wealth of Nations" laid the foundation for free market economics. 

Isaac Newton (1642-1727)was an English mathematician and physicist who laid the foundation for classical mechanics and calculus. Newton developed the laws of motion and universal gravitation, which led to improvements in understanding the Copernican heliocentric universe, according to the Isaac Newton Institute for Mathematical Sciences.
                                                            

Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826),an American Founding Father, was heavily influenced by Enlightenment philosophy and spent several years in France. He wrote the Declaration of Independence, which stressed Enlightenment ideas such as liberty, fundamental human rights and equality (though not for slaves), according to the Thomas Jefferson Foundation. 

Enlightenment approach to science

The Enlightenment and the Scientific Revolution "saw a vast expansion in our knowledge about the world, and in the accuracy of this knowledge," said UK-based historian and writer Robert Wilde. "Part of this was down to the development of what we would consider modern scientific method," Though others had posited variations on the scientific method, Newton laid the groundwork for method we know today, according to the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 

Thanks to increased literacy and the falling cost of books, the means of spreading results of science experiments improved, as did the willingness of thinkers and scientists to discuss them and adopt them, Wilde told Live Science. "I do want to mention the proto-scientists such as Gregory of Tours and other who came before: people had never stopped trying to understand the world, it was just that the successful development of modern science occurred now," he said.

How the Enlightenment changed the world

"It cannot be stressed enough how instrumental the Enlightenment ideas were in changing history and society around the globe," said Abernethy. We still hold many Enlightenment ideals dear. Some of the scientific theories have evolved, but many remain as their Enlightenment authors wrote them. The concepts of liberty, reason and equality influenced early feminist Mary Wollstonecraft [mother of Mary Shelley, author of "Frankenstein"], American abolitionist Frederick Douglass and other seminal leaders.

"The ideas of religious tolerance and the separation of church and state did indeed lead to a reduction in wars due to religious differences," said Abernethy. As the power of the church waned, societies like the Freemasons and the Illuminati gained traction. Literary salons and coffeehouses emerged as new places to socialize and discuss ideas. Education for children became more widespread, and more universities were founded. Literacy rates increased dramatically, and public libraries and museums were introduced. 

"The concepts of the Enlightenment led to many revolutions, which had a tremendous effect on changing history and society," said Abernethy. "In 1688, English Protestants were instrumental in overthrowing the Catholic monarch James II and installing the Protestant monarchs William and Mary. Afterwards, the English Parliament ratified a new Bill of Rights granting more personal freedoms for Englishmen."

The most famous Enlightenment-influenced revolutions were the French and American. 

The American Revolution

"The Founding Fathers adopted many of the ideas of the Enlightenment philosophers in writing the Constitution and the Bill of Rights," said Abernethy. They gave less power to the government and more power to the people. She added that they also established universal education in America. 
[Related: What Is Democracy? and What Is Freedom?]

The French Revolution

The French Revolution took the English coup a step further and eliminated monarchy altogether. King Louis XVI and his queen, Marie Antoinette, were beheaded and a Republican form of government was established.

"There's a debate about whether the Enlightenment affected society, or whether a society changing through different means affected the Enlightenment," said Wilde. "Either way, the ideas of Enlightenment … influenced a French middle class to want a voice in government. In 1789, [this desire] produced a Third Estate, which broke away from royal rule, and triggered the French Revolution."

Though Enlightenment philosophy emphasized seemingly positive ideals like liberty and tolerance, Wilde noted that it could be taken to extremes. "It's important to stress that the Enlightenment thinkers weren't exactly sticking to the ideals of others … and the extremes of Enlightenment thought, such as a rejection of the church, have been blamed for the terror in the revolution." The brutality of the revolution and the subsequent Napoleonic Wars demonstrate the limits of attempting to remake society along purely rational lines. 

By Jessica Szalay

(The painting above, by John Trumbull, depicts the moment on June 28, 1776, when the first draft of the Declaration of Independence was presented to the Second Continental Congress. The document incorporated many Enlightenment ideas.) 

With many thanks to Live Science

Picture credit for Sir Isaac Newton:Physics Quest

Some related posts: 

Great Minds: Leonardo da Vinci
Five Brilliant Mathematicians And Their Impact On The Modern World 
London Exhibition Explores Truth Of Leonardo da Vinci’s Genius
10 Mathematical Equations That Changed The World
Mad Geniuses: 10 Odd Tales About Famous Scientists
A Royal Affair and the Age of Enlightenment.
Benjamin Franklin:11 Surprising Facts
Hedy Lamarr - Beauty And Brains in Abundance
Khalil Gibran: 25 Lessons That Can Totally Transform Your Life 
A History Of Rituals 

The Perfectionist Trap
Albert Einstein's Legacy
The Nobel Prizes In Numbers

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz: The Philosopher Who Helped Create the Information Age




 

Archaeologists Reveal Probable Sites Of Two Missions That Predate The Alamo

                                                               

                                                                    

My first stop on my first visit to the USA was San Antonio.

So much to see and do there! Knowing a little about the history of the town was an enormous asset. I doubt there are many people who haven't heard of Davey Crockett, Jim Bowie and Col.William Travis.

Archaeologists are revealing the location of the site where they believe San Antonio's first mission once stood, saying the Alamo had two predecessors.

"There were three locations of Mission San Antonio de Valero," said Kay Hindes, city archaeologist.
 

She says the first site is likely somewhere near the Christopher Columbus Italian Society near I-10 and I-35. It was founded in 1718.

"They were only here about a year, so it was a very short-lived site," she said.

It's unclear why the mission was moved, possibly to the La Villita area. A hurricane hit in 1724, and then came the Alamo.

"Most people don't realize there are three locations," Hindes said. "Mission San Jose also had three locations."
 

Hindes recovered artifacts, including pottery, beads and nails, not far from the Italian Society. Some of the items were buried, but she saw others that were on the ground, eroding but visible 300 years later.

"I looked down and started seeing the metal and I literally, really, I just had to sit down on the ground," she said, "because I was like 'This is too incredible.'"
 

Councilman Roberto Treviño was working on an architectural project in the area when he got involved with the effort to unearth the history.

"This is historic for the Italian buildings that are here," he said, "but underneath that is the original San Antonio de Valero. That's an extra layer of history."
 

Treviño added historians have been searching for the site for a hundred years.

"People traveled thousands of miles from central Mexico up here, by foot, by the way, to find the site, to establish the site," he said.

Hindes said the artifacts date to the correct time period, and written records as well as topography point to the Italian Society as being the location of the Alamo's predecessor.
 

"We don't know for sure, but we hypothesize that probably they would have put the mission at the highest point," Hindes said.

Treviño said a plaque at the Alamo states the mission was founded in 1718, rather than 1724. "It's actually incorrect, but we're setting the record straight."
 

By Michael Locklear

With many thanks to News4San Antonio

Update:

Archaeologists make 'exciting' discovery in Alamo dig 
                                                                   

Archaeologists digging at the Alamo have discovered an adobe wall that may provide clues to the famous site’s Spanish Colonial history.

The wall, which is about 23 inches below the flagstone surface of San Antonio's Alamo Plaza, was discovered Friday near where historians think the west wall of the complex was built. Experts are working to locate the compound’s original walls.

The location of the famous battle of the Alamo in 1836, the site was first established as a Spanish mission in 1744.

“Last week we very excited to discover we found the remnants of an old adobe brick wall,” explained Nesta Anderson, the dig’s lead investigator and senior archaeologist at Pape-Dawson Engineers, in a press conference Monday. “In the ground, we can see clearly, bricks stacked next to each other, they are made of adobe, so they are very fragile.”

The adobe is a type of material traditionally associated with Spanish Colonial structures in the area, according to experts.

At this stage, however, it is not clear whether the bricks are from the Alamo’s west wall or from another structure on the UNESCO World Heritage site. While the bricks may be from an outer wall of the compound, they may also be from the rooms where Native Americans lived outside the wall, Anderson said.

“We have still got a little bit to determine whether it’s an interior or an exterior wall – because we now have some evidence we really want to focus on chasing that evidence out,” she explained. “We will look to archival research, as well as altering, possibly, our digging – because we have got something from the Spanish Colonial period we know we’re digging in the right place at the right time.”

The three-to-four-week dig, which may encompass three locations in Alamo Plaza, began July 20 as part of ‘Reimagine the Alamo’, a project to develop a new master plan for the site and its surrounding area.

Initially, archaeologists had a tough time identifying the adobe wall, which is located just south of the Crockett building on Alamo St. “We’re not talking about solid bricks, just to be clear, this is almost a soil stain, if you will,” Anderson explained. “It’s a difference in color in the soil – these bricks are made of mud, so they are very sensitive to weather.”

Nonetheless, the bricks could offer vital clues to the Alamo’s history. “Depending on how many courses of brick, they might tell us a bit about the architecture that was used,” Anderson said.

The archaeologist told FoxNews.com that there is plenty left to discover at the Alamo site. 

"We don't know as much as we thought we did from an archaeological perspective," she said. "There have been archaeological digs at the site from the 70s onwards, but they have just been snapshots."

By James Rogers
With many thanks to FoxNews

Related:

Texas Rising

More related posts:

Stonehenge: A Breakthrough In An Age-old Mystery?

Chauvet Cave Paintings: Cave Women Left Their Artistic Mark

Colossal Pharaoh Statues of Amenhotep III Found in Egypt’s Temple City Luxor

Lost City of Heracleion Gives Up Its Secrets

Shilling Discovery 'Could' Rewrite Canadian History

Fake Pharaoh: Tutankhamun Replica To Safeguard Original Tomb

10,000-year-old House Uncovered Outside Of Jerusalem

Great Zimbabwe

Rock-hewn Tombs From Ancient Egypt Discovered In Aswan

Europe's Oldest Human Footprints Found: 900,000 Year-old Norfolk Footprints 'Definitely Human”

First Pharaoh Ruled Ancient Egypt Earlier Than First Thought  

The Antikythera Mechanism - The World's Oldest Known Computer

Archaeologists Digging Up Cecile B DeMille's Movie Treasures

The Lost Technology of Ancient Egyptians

The Elgin Marbles - A Continuing Controversy

Zeugma: 2,000-Year-Old Mosaics Uncovered In Turkey
 
Five Lost Cities

China's Lost Civilization: The Mystery Of Sanxingdui
 
Hatshepsut: From Queen to Pharaoh

Ancient Tomb in Amphipolis Revealed
 
Easter Island: Scientists Are Closer To Understanding What Wiped Out Its Society

The World’s Priceless Treasures

Relief of Queen Nefertiti

Gold Treasures Discovered in Ming Dynasty Tomb

Unique Mosaic Images Uncovered in Fifth-Century Synagogue 

 Philip of Macedonia, Greece’s Ancient King, Found 

Queen Nefertiti: Was She Hidden In King Tutankhamun’s Tomb?

The Cave of Altamira and Paleolithic Cave Art of Northern Spain

The Antikythera Mechanism: Second Expedition Seeks More Mechanism Remains 

 Discovery Of Ancient Cave Paintings In Petra

Scientists Find ‘Superhenge’ That Could Be Five Times The Area Of Stonehenge

New Clues to Ancient Roman Art Discovered in Egyptian Mummy Portraits

Babylonians Tracked Jupiter with Fancy Math, Tablet Reveals

Rome Reborn – An Amazing Digital Model of Ancient Rome

A Day in Pompeii

The Holigost: 600 Year Old Pride of Henry V’s Fleet May Have Been Found

Ippolito Rosellini: The Monuments of Egypt And Nubia

Gem-Filled Warrior's Tomb Discovered in Ancient Greek City  

Amenhotep’s Fragmented Book Of The Dead Found 

Acra: Ancient Citadel Unearthed In Jerusalem 

Glastonbury Legends, King Arthur’s ‘Grave’, Made Up For Cash By Monks

 Is Queen Nefertiti Buried In King Tutankhaman’s Tomb? - Latest News

King Hezekiah's Seal Impression Found

Spanish Galleon San Jose Discovered Laden With Treasure Off Colombia 

Has The Lost Island Of Kane Been Found?

Britain's Pompeii' Found at Bronze Age Settlement

New Clues to Ancient Roman Art Discovered in Egyptian Mummy Portraits

Hidden Rooms In King Tut’s Tomb May Contain Organic Material

Shipwreck Discovered From Explorer Vasco da Gama's Fleet

Ancestral Puebloans Were Hit By Boom and Bust

Bible Breakthrough Found In Israel

Queen Hatshepsut's Building Blocks Discovered

What’s REALLY Inside A Pyramid:1st 3D Images Created Using Cosmic Particles

The World's 20 Most Impressive Ancient Builds

Rare Ancient Greek Gold Crown Discovered Under A Bed. 

Dagger in King Tut's Tomb Was Made With Iron From A Meteorite 

Team Testing New Scanner on Egypt's Great Pyramid

Ancient Mayan Observatory Was Used To Track Venus And Mars

Has The Gateway to Ancient Greek God's Compound Been Uncovered?

Archaeologists Find 22 Ancient Greek Shipwrecks

Palace Found At Tintagel, Fabled Birthplace Of King Arthur

 Marble Statues of Aphrodite Unearthed At Petra

Did the Greeks Help Sculpt China's Terra Cotta Warriors?

Egyptian Mummy And Temple 4200 Years Old With Well-Preserved Art Revealed