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The Holy Grail is a dish, plate, stone or cup that is part of an
important theme of Arthurian literature. According to legend, it has
special powers and is designed to provide happiness, eternal youth and
food in infinite abundance.
A grail, wondrous but not explicitly
holy, first appears in Perceval le Gallois, an unfinished romance by
Chrétien de Troyes.[1] It is a processional salver used to serve at a
feast. Chrétien's story attracted many continuators, translators and
interpreters in the later 12th and early 13th centuries, including
Wolfram von Eschenbach, who perceived the grail as a great precious
stone that fell from the sky.
The Grail legend became interwoven with
legends of the Holy Chalice.[2] The connection with Joseph of Arimathea
and with vessels associated with the Last Supper and crucifixion of
Jesus dates from Robert de Boron's Joseph d'Arimathie (late 12th
century) in which Joseph receives the Grail from an apparition of Jesus
and sends it with his followers to Great Britain.
Building upon this
theme, later writers recounted how Joseph used the Grail to catch
Christ's blood while interring him and how he founded a line of
guardians to keep it safe in Britain. The legend may combine Christian
lore with a Celtic myth of a cauldron endowed with special powers.
Mythology, propaganda, Liz Taylor and the real Queen of the Nile.
The struggle with her teenage brother over
the throne of Egypt was not going as well as Cleopatra VII had hoped. In
49 B.C., Pharaoh Ptolemy XIII—also her husband and, by the terms of
their father's will, her co-ruler—had driven his sister from the palace
at Alexandria after Cleopatra attempted to make herself the sole
sovereign. The queen, then in her early twenties, fled to Syria and
returned with a mercenary army, setting up camp just outside the
capital.
Meanwhile, pursuing a military rival
who had fled to Egypt, the Roman general Julius Caesar arrived at
Alexandria in the summer of 48 B.C., and found himself drawn into the
Egyptian family feud. For decades Egypt had been a subservient ally to
Rome, and preserving the stability of the Nile Valley, with its great
agricultural wealth, was in Rome's economic interest. Caesar took up
residence at Alexandria's royal palace and summoned the warring siblings
for a peace conference, which he planned to arbitrate.
But Ptolemy
XIII's forces barred the return of the king's sister to Alexandria.
Aware that Caesar's diplomatic intervention could help her regain the
throne, Cleopatra hatched a scheme to sneak herself into the palace for
an audience with Caesar. She persuaded her servant Apollodoros to wrap
her in a carpet (or, according to some sources, a sack used for storing
bedclothes), which he then presented to the 52-year old Roman.
The image of young Cleopatra tumbling out of an unfurled carpet
has been dramatized in nearly every film about her, from the silent era
to a 1999 TV miniseries, but it was also a key scene in the real
Cleopatra's staging of her own life.
"She was clearly using all her
talents from the moment she arrived on the world stage before Caesar,"
says Egyptologist Joann Fletcher, author of a forthcoming biography, Cleopatra the Great.
Like most monarchs of her time,
Cleopatra saw herself as divine; from birth she and other members of her
family were declared to be gods and goddesses. Highly image-conscious,
Cleopatra maintained her mystique through shows of splendor, identifying
herself with the deities Isis and Aphrodite, and in effect creating
much of the mythology that surrounds her to this day.
Though Hollywood
versions of her story are jam-packed with anachronisms, embellishments,
exaggerations and inaccuracies, the Cleopatras of Elizabeth Taylor,
Vivien Leigh and Claudette Colbert do share with the real queen a love
of pageantry.
"Cleopatra was a mistress of disguise and costume," says
Fletcher. "She could reinvent herself to suit the occasion, and I think
that's a mark of the consummate politician."
When Cleopatra emerged from the carpet—probably somewhat
disheveled, but dressed in her best finery—and begged Caesar for aid,
the gesture won over Rome's future dictator-for-life. With his help
Cleopatra regained Egypt's throne. Ptolemy XIII rebelled against the
armistice that Caesar had imposed, but in the ensuing civil war he
drowned in the Nile, leaving Cleopatra safely in power.
Though Cleopatra bore him a son, Caesar was already married, and
Egyptian custom decreed that Cleopatra marry her remaining brother,
Ptolemy XIV. Caesar was assassinated in 44 B.C., and with her ally gone
Cleopatra had Ptolemy XIV killed to prevent any challenges to her son's
succession.
To solidify her grip on the throne, she dispatched her
rebellious sister Arsinoe as well. Such ruthlessness was not only a
common feature of Egyptian dynastic politics in Cleopatra's day, it was
necessary to ensure her own survival and that of her son. With all
domestic threats removed, Cleopatra set about the business of ruling
Egypt, the richest nation in the Mediterranean world, and the last to
remain independent of Rome.
What kind of pharaoh was Cleopatra? The few remaining
contemporary Egyptian sources suggest that she was very popular among
her own people. Egypt's Alexandria-based rulers, including Cleopatra,
were ethnically Greek, descended from Alexander the Great's general
Ptolemy I Soter. They would have spoken Greek and observed Greek
customs, separating themselves from the ethnically Egyptian majority.
But unlike her forebears, Cleopatra actually bothered to learn the
Egyptian language. For Egyptian audiences, she commissioned portraits of
herself in the traditional Egyptian style. In one papyrus dated to 35
B.C. Cleopatra is called Philopatris, "she who loves her
country." By identifying herself as a truly Egyptian pharaoh, Cleopatra
used patriotism to cement her position.
Cleopatra's foreign policy goal, in addition to preserving her
personal power, was to maintain Egypt's independence from the rapidly
expanding Roman Empire. By trading with Eastern nations—Arabia and
possibly as far away as India—she built up Egypt's economy, bolstering
her country's status as a world power.
By allying herself with Roman
general Mark Antony, Cleopatra hoped to keep Octavian, Julius Caesar's
heir and Antony's rival, from making Egypt a vassal to Rome. Ancient
sources make it clear that Cleopatra and Antony did love each other and
that Cleopatra bore Antony three children; still, the relationship was
also very useful to an Egyptian queen who wished to expand and protect
her empire.
Though some modern historians have portrayed Cleopatra as a
capable, popular Egyptian leader, we tend to imagine her through Roman
eyes. During her lifetime and in the century after her death, Roman
propaganda, most of it originating with her enemy Octavian, painted
Cleopatra as a dangerous harlot who employed sex, witchcraft and cunning
as she grasped for power beyond what was proper for a woman.
The poet
Horace, writing in the late first century B.C., called her "A crazy
queen...plotting...to demolish the Capitol and topple the [Roman]
Empire." Nearly a century later, the Roman poet Lucan labeled her "the
shame of Egypt, the lascivious fury who was to become the bane of Rome."
After Roman tempers cooled, the Greek historian Plutarch
published a more sympathetic biography. Cleopatra became a tragic
heroine, with love of Antony her sole motivation. Over the next two
millennia, countless paintings and dramatizations—including
Shakespeare's Antony and Cleopatra and John Dryden's All for Love—focused
on the fantastic details of her suicide after Octavian defeated Antony.
We know almost certainly that Cleopatra, along with her two most
trusted servants, killed herself on August 12, 30 B.C., to escape
capture by Octavian. However, since the facts of her death were unclear
even to the men who found the bodies, we will never know if it was the
famous asp that killed the queen, or a smuggled vial of poison. The asp
legend has prevailed, however, and the image of her death, more than
anything else, gave Cleopatra immortality.
In February 2007, a recently discovered coin bearing a portrait
of Cleopatra went on display at Newcastle University in England,
sparking renewed interest in the queen and a debate about whether she
was really as beautiful as we imagine.
The coin, dated to 32 B.C., shows
a rather homely Cleopatra with a large nose, narrow lips and a sharp
chin. She looks nothing like Elizabeth Taylor. But ancient historians
never characterized Cleopatra as a great beauty, and in her time she was
not considered a romantic heroine. In his A.D. 75 Life of Antony,
Plutarch tells us, "Her actual beauty...was not so remarkable that none
could be compared with her, or that no one could see her without being
struck by it, but the contact of her presence...was irresistible.... The
character that attended all she said or did was something bewitching."
Cleopatra's beauty (or lack thereof) was irrelevant to the Romans
who knew her and the Egyptian people she ruled. The real Cleopatra had
charisma, and her sexiness stemmed from her intelligence—what Plutarch
described as "the charm of her conversation"—rather than her kohl-rimmed
eyes.
Pharaoh Cleopatra VII was a brilliant leader, says Joann
Fletcher. "She was one of the most dynamic figures the world has ever
seen. And I don't think that's an exaggeration." By Amy Crawford
