Re -Train Your Brain To Happiness

September 02, 2014

Ancient Tomb in Amphipolis Revealed - Updated

From Live Science:

In ancient Amphipolis in central Macedonia, archaeologists have been excavating a huge burial complex that dates back to the 4th century B.C., during the the era of Alexander the Great. The excavators don't know what they'll find inside but they recently revealed the sphinx-guarded entrance to the tomb.

From You Tube:
Greek PM Samaras visits the Kasta Tumulus on August 12, 2014
Tomb of Amphipolis (presentation website & Facebook page - "Like" it!):
http://www.theamphipolistomb.com & https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Js7KB...
https://www.facebook.com/amphipolistomb
City of Amphipolis: http://www.macedonian-heritage.gr/Hel...
Dinocrates the Architect: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinocrates

Resume:
1. A surrounding wall of 497 m, unique among Macedonian tombs.
2. Two statues of Sphinxes on either side of the door, which was served by a large (4.5 m wide) road.
3. The "Lion of Amphipolis", of a height of 5.25 m itself, is now, apparently, definitely attributed (by the architect Mr. Lefantzis) to this monument, its original position being at the summit of the tumulus.
4. According to Mrs. Ekaterini Peristeri, the Ephorate director and current chief excavator of the site, the monument "bears the signature of the famous architect and friend of Alexander, Dinocrates".
5. Mrs. Peristeri dates the monument to "the last quarter of the 4th century", i.e. 325-300.
6. The marble used for the surrounding wall comes from the neighboring island of Thasos, specifically the quarry of Alyki. This means that the large blocks were transported by sea, an expensive and difficult operation.

Note: The archaeological excavations at the Kasta tumulus were carried out by Mr. Dimitris Lazaridis between 1965-1985 and restarted in 2009.
[....]

Picture credit: Science Alert

Female Stone Statues Revealed in Ancient Greek Tomb

Why Was the Tomb at Amphipolis Built?

Archaeologist Katerina Peristeri claimed in a press conference yesterday that the vaulted tomb excavated last year in Amphipolis “was a funerary monument for Hephaestion,” Alexander the Great’s closest friend and general. At least five skeletons were found in the tomb, which featured twin statues of sphinxes and young women, a painted frieze, and a mosaic floor. Peristeri said that fragments of Hephaestion’s monogram have also been found inscribed in the tomb.

According to a report by the Associated Press, Peristeri explained that there is no evidence that Hephaestion was buried at the site, but that it might be one of a series of monuments Alexander erected to his memory in 324 B.C. Panayiotis Faklaris of the University of Thessaloniki disagrees. “There is no historic or scientific basis,” for the claims he said. “Hephaestion had no connection with Amphipolis.” To read more about the Amphipolis tomb, one of last year's Top 10 Discoveries, go to "Greece's Biggest Tomb.

With many thanks to Archaeology.

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Do All Languages Come From A Single Common Ancestor?

The Tower of Babel story is a fanciful attempt to account for a very real question: What was the first language and why are there now so many of them?

The video below from TED Ed shows a brief history of how languages evolve, as speakers of the same language lose contact with each other in the centuries after migration and gradually drift linguistically in different directions.

What's most interesting is not simply how we got multiple languages but rather how we determine, without the benefit of a time machine, which modern languages are related. To do this, historical linguists compare large numbers of words in different languages, looking for similarities that can't be explained by other factors, such as onomatopoeia (the word for cat is something like "miao" in several languages, but, well, there's likely an obvious reason for that) or borrowing (the word for tea in most languages is something like te or cha, but those can both be traced back to trade routes from different parts of China).

Similarities that are solid evidence of common ancestry may at first not look like similarities at all. For example, compare the English words father, foot, far, and five with the Ancient Greek words meaning the same thing: pater, podos, per (technically "forward"), and pente. Notice anything? The English terms all begin with an "f" sound while the Ancient Greek ones start with a "p" sound. When you piece together a whole series of systematic parallels like this across several languages (we can add in Latin pedes and German Fuß, both meaning "foot," for example), you can begin figuring out what the common ancestor, known as a proto-language, might have looked like.

The common ancestor of English, Latin, Greek, Russian, Gaelic, Hindi, and many other languages spoken in Europe and India is known as Proto-Indo-European, whereas the more recent common ancestor of just English, German, Dutch, Norwegian and the other Germanic languages is known as Proto-Germanic.

The video below describes more of these systematic sound changes between Proto-Germanic and the rest of the Indo-European languages, and how they were discovered by linguists including the Brothers Grimm (yes, those Brothers Grimm). More in the video below.

We can do pretty well going step-by-step with this base-level comparison of languages—whether modern or those for which we only have written records—which has enabled linguists to devise around 50 proto-languages to varying levels of detail.

But the real time-machine problem kicks in when we attempt to go even further back, back to what the common ancestor of these proto-languages might have been. Since there aren't any modern human societies that are incapable of language and any baby can learn any language, it's not unreasonable to suppose that we were probably using language when the first genetically modern humans began to spread throughout, and out of, Africa. But unlike cooking utensils or hunting weapons, languages don't leave physical artifacts of being spoken, and writing of any kind wasn't invented until somewhere between 50,000 and 300,000 years later. Ish

And unfortunately, this means that any theory of the first human language must be based on pretty darn flimsy evidence. This problem was recognized as early as 1866, when the Linguistic Society of Paris prohibited further papers on the topic, and although this ban is no longer heeded, there's still nothing like consensus on where language came from or what the earliest ones might have sounded like.

But one tantalizing piece of evidence comes from a curious source: the newest languages of the world, like Nicaraguan Sign Language and other creoles, which arise when a group of children make order out of inconsistent linguistic input. We may never know for sure, but perhaps the process of creating a new language from scratch hasn't changed that much across the millennia.

By Gretchen McCulloch is a linguist and the contributing editor of Slate's Lexicon Valley blog. She has a master's in linguistics from McGill University and blogs daily at All Things Linguistic.

Article with thanks to Slate.

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Keukenhof: The Garden of Europe

The grounds on which the garden sits today had quite a few proprietors over the centuries, including the Countess we mentioned earlier as well as a few wealthy merchants and barons. During the 19th century, the Baron and Baroness Van Pallandt assigned father-and-son architects David Zocher and Louis Paul Zocher to redesign the grounds surrounding Keukenhof Castle, while in 1949, the mayor of Lisse established the exquisite gardens officially.

Nowadays, a great deal of visitors come here to gaze upon the beauty of the flowers each year, admiring the incredible complexity and variety of flora and garden types. Highlights include the English landscape garden, a Japanese country garden and a Historical garden, and while some of you might expect to find never-ending fields of Tulips here, we’re going to tell you that the Keukenhof does not include such attractions. However, there are some tulip fields near the castle grounds, (mostly owned privately) which you could admire and photograph should you desire.

This site has been visited by many famous personalities over time, including Princesses Beatrix, Irene and Margriet (the daughters of Queen Juliana) as well as other distinguished members of the Dutch Royal Family. If you would like to see the gardens for yourself, you should know that they are scheduled to open their gates again in 2014 from March 20 to May 18. The grounds of Castle Keukenhof, however, are open all year long.

With thanks to Rare Delights.

'Keukenhof' in the Netherlands, also known as the Garden of Europe, is the world's largest flower garden for over 50 years. It is filled with tulips, hyacinths, daffodils and other spring bulbs.

Facts & figures: Over 7 million flower bulbs are planted by hand every year in the park, which covers an area of 32 hectares. It has 4.5 million tulips in 100 varieties, and flower bulbs in more than 1600 different varieties. The bulbs are supplied by 91 Royal Warrant Holders. There are more than 2,500 trees in 87 varieties. There are 15 kilometers of footpaths, 280 benches, 15 fountains and 32 bridges. There are 4 different indoor pavilions.

Keukenhof is located near the small town of Lisse, between Amsterdam and The Hague. It is situated in an area called the "Dune and Bulb Region" (Duin- en Bollenstreek), a region that features coastal dunes and the cultivation of flower bulbs.

Keukenhof is open annually from the last week in March to mid-May. The best time to view the tulips is around mid-April, depending on the weather. Tip: go early in the morning or late in the afternoon, there are less people.

Where Keukenhof is situated now, was a hunting area in the 15th century. Herbs for the kitchen of the castle were also collected here; hence the name Keukenhof ("kitchen garden").

The garden was established in 1949 by the then-mayor of Lisse. The idea was to present a flower exhibit where growers from all over the Netherlands and Europe could show off their hybrids -- and help the Dutch export industry (the Netherlands is the world's largest exporter of flowers).

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Cellist Maya Beiser Channels Janis Joplin, Nirvana And Other Rockers

CELLIST Maya Beiser remembers when, as a teenager in Israel, she first heard Janis Joplin’s voice.

It more than moved her.
“It just shook me to the core,” says Beiser. “It was this revelation, that someone can be so raw and give it all.”

Living on a kibbutz at the time, she adds: “Right then and there, I thought, ‘This is how I want to be playing my cello.’ ”

Today, Beiser, 49, is not only playing the way Joplin sang but also is playing the singer-songwriter’s voice on her cello.

This week the label Innova Recordings released the cellist’s latest album, Uncovered, a collection of covers — although Beiser stresses they are artistic reimaginings, not imitations — of rock tunes by artists such as Pink Floyd, Nirvana, Led Zeppelin, Muddy Waters and, of course, Joplin.

While there are limited appearances by other instrumentalists, most of the album is only Beiser, in arrangements by her frequent collaborator Evan Ziporyn. By layering as many as 20 cello tracks on top of one another, he turns one acoustic cello into a rock band.

In her living room in the Bronx neighbourhood of Riverdale, Beiser effortlessly demonstrates the practical differences between classical and rock.

“All of this insane perfectionism that we’re taught, none of that exists in rock,” says Beiser, hugging her instrument. “When you’re analysing this big electric-guitar solo in Jimi Hendrix, it’s so out of tune,” she says of an intricate, wistful passage in Little Wing.

“You have to learn to bend and sort of be around the note.”
She moves on to the voice of Nirvana lead singer Kurt Cobain and plays the opening of Lithium. A grimy, fuzzy howl emerges from her cello, created partially by placing her bow close to the bridge.

“His voice is raspy and out of tune and not clean,” Beiser says. Playing his voice on the cello “is about letting go of all that and diving into that world”.

Throughout her career, she has largely sidestepped the traditional repertoire and performance routines of mainstream classical musicians. She began playing the cello at eight and fulfilled her compulsory army service through a gig in the Israeli Army String Quartet.
She moved to the US in 1985 to attend Yale University. She is a founding member of new-music ensemble Bang on a Can All-Stars. She has given a TED talk, starred in a “cello opera” and composers including Steve Reich, Osvaldo Golijov and Philip Glass have written works for her.

These days, she spends about half of her time on the road and half at home with her two children; her husband, a psychiatrist; and her purebred havanese.

Ziporyn, a clarinettist, composer and Massachusetts Institute of Technology professor, describes arranging classic rock tunes for cello.

In some songs, such as Pink Floyd’s Wish You Were Here, he strips the tunes “down to their essence, to expose this really beautiful thing,” he says, but in others, like Lithium, he uses the original tune in a structural sense.

“It’s too perfect if you just imitate,” he says.

The original melody becomes like “almost a cantus firmus”, or a chant that medieval composers would turn into entire church masses.

Ziporyn also uses contemporary music techniques, such as detuning the cello and certain kinds of plucking, to create a rock-band palette of sounds.
“With Maya, I can get an entire orchestra out of the cello,” he says.

“It’s definitely gutsy to do because I think it will be easy for people to criticise, ‘Oh, cello trying to do rock songs,” says drummer Glenn Kotche, of the band Wilco, which performed on two tracks.

“But I think it’s not so much a commercial concept to do this, but an altruistic attempt to convey what she does on her instrument with material that is emotionally resonant for her.”
Beiser draws a distinction between pop (“formulaic”, “makes lots and lots of money”) and what she considers the progressive, art rock played by Nirvana and Hendrix.

“Each and every artist on this album is anything but formulaic,” she says. “I think this music is just as valuable and important as Bach and Schubert.”

By Corinne Ramey

With thanks to The Australian

Above clip: Maya's version of Led Zeppelin's "Kashmir," from her album "Provenance".
Below: the original:

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What is Mechanical Engineering?

Mechanical engineering is one of the oldest branches of engineering, dating back to when the first wheels were put to practical use by mounting them on an axle to make a cart. Throughout recorded history, people have been inventing and building increasingly more sophisticated devices and machines in order to improve the conditions of life. Many of the machines we encounter every day — cars, appliances, tools and climate control systems — were made possible by mechanical engineers.

"Mechanical engineering dates to ancient Greece and China, where mechanisms like screw pumps, steam engines, clocks, seismometers and even differential gears were invented,” according to the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME). Pioneers in the field — people who built the machines for which they became famous — include Archimedes (Archimedes’ screw pump, block-and-tackle pulley, etc.), Johannes Gutenberg (movable-type printing press), James Watt (steam engine), Robert Fulton (steamboat), Eli Whitney (cotton gin) and Henry Ford(automobile assembly line).

One of the most significant drivers of innovation in the field of mechanical engineering, particularly in its earliest stages, has been war, according to the Viterbi School of Engineering at the University of Southern California.

“Mechanical engineers can create basic commodities that an every-day person would use, or other highly valued items for the military or government,” the school's website states.

Catapults, battering rams, chariots and siege towers were all the products of mechanical engineering. Many of the machines of modern warfare, such as armored vehicles, ships, aircraft, artillery and firearms, also owe their existence to mechanical engineers.

What does a mechanical engineer do?

Simply put, "mechanical engineering deals with anything that moves," according to the Fu Foundation School of Engineering and Applied Science at Columbia University. Mechanical engineers still use basic components that have been known and used for centuries — such as wheels, axles, levers, screws, springs and hinges — to make machines such as vehicles, farm machinery, household appliances, robots and industrial equipment. Mechanical engineers also design sub-assemblies for these machines, including control systems and instruments as well as individual parts.

Movement can be powered by the muscles of humans or animals, heat and pressure of combustion, hydraulic or pneumatic actuators, electromagnetism, gravity or springs of all shapes and sizes. Therefore, a mechanical engineer must be familiar with all of these basic motion and power components in order to design more complex devices. For instance, in an automobile, the starter motor uses electromagnetism; the engine is powered by expansive pressure from the combustion of gasoline; the power steering, brakes and automatic transmission use hydraulic pressure; and the suspension system uses springs.

Mechanical engineering is one of the broadest engineering disciplines, according to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS). Mechanical engineers must have a basic working knowledge of many other areas of engineering, including structural, aerospace, computer and electrical engineering. Additionally, they should be familiar with instrumentation and control, manufacturing processes and materials in order to design devices that can be built efficiently and at a reasonable cost.

Critical skills needed in mechanical engineering are an in-depth understanding of physics, mathematics and materials. This knowledge allows engineers to calculate failure conditions based on the dimensions of a part, the properties of its material and the conditions under which it will operate. An engineer can then specify the required dimensions and materials of a part so it can withstand a given force.

Engineers work with many types of materials, including metals, ceramics, polymers and composites.

In "Mechanical Behavior of Engineering Materials" (Springer, 2007), Joachim Roesler, Harald Harders and Martin Baeker write that it is very important for mechanical engineers to study the mechanical behavior of materials. Knowing the properties of these materials, such as their density, hardness, tensile strength, bulk modulus and bending strength, allows mechanical engineers to calculate how these materials will perform under stresses such as compression, tension, bending and twisting as well as under various environmental conditions of temperature, pressure, corrosive gasses and liquids, and even radiation. They also need to be able to predict how these materials will stand up over an extended period of time.

More and more, mechanical engineers rely on computer-aided design (CAD) and computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) systems, so proficiency with computers is essential. According to theUniversity of Pittsburgh website, "To design all the machines that use and produce power, today's mechanical engineers use CAD/CAM drawing programs to draft their designs exactly before any manufacturing and testing is done."

In addition to speeding up the drafting process, CAD systems allow for quick and easy modifications of designs, three-dimensional (3D) visualization of finished parts and assemblies, and rapid prototyping using 3D printing and computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) software with computer numeric controlled (CNC) machine tools. A comprehensive list of necessary skills and abilities for mechanical engineers can be found at MyMajors.com.

Mechanical engineering jobs and salary

According to the BLS, "Mechanical engineers generally work in professional office settings. They may occasionally visit worksites where a problem or piece of equipment needs their personal attention. Mechanical engineers work mostly in engineering services, research and development, manufacturing industries, and the federal government."

For most jobs, mechanical engineers need at least a bachelor’s degree in engineering, and many employers, particularly those that offer engineering consulting services, also require certification as a Professional Engineer. A master's degree is often required for promotion to management, and ongoing education and training are needed to keep up with advances in technology, materials, computer hardware and software, and government regulations. Additionally, many mechanical engineers belong to the American Society of Mechanical Engineers.

According to Salary.com, as of July 2014 the salary range for a newly graduated mechanical engineer with a bachelor's degree is $52,626 to $74,524. The range for a mid-level engineer with a master's and five to 10 years of experience is $73,238 to $108,609; and the range for a senior engineer with a master's or doctorate and more than 15 years of experience is $95,251 to $141,806. Many experienced engineers with advanced degrees are promoted to management positions or start their own businesses where they can earn even more.

The field of mechanical engineering is expected to grow. The BLS states, "Employment of mechanical engineers is projected to grow 5 percent from 2012 to 2022, slower than the average for all occupations. Job prospects may be best for those who stay abreast of the most recent advances in technology." Having good grades from a highly rated institution should give a job seeker an advantage over the competition.

Look for top-rated mechanical engineering programs at TopUniversities.com.

Jim Lucas is a freelance writer and editor specializing in physics, astronomy and engineering. He is general manager of Lucas Technologies.

With thanks to Live Science

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Rocket Scientist Olympia LePoint Shares How She Overcame Fear, And Reprogrammed Her Brain

Award winning NASA scientist Olympia LePoint helped launch 28 space shuttle missions, she is also an author and t.v. host. Who as a child was marginalized, and grew up to overcome the odds of poverty and violence.

She would overcome the obstacles life set in her path, not allowing fear of failure to stop her. As a women in a field dominated by men, she has embraced her femininity with confidence, accepting, and being herself, she has excelled in a field few women have entered.

To do this she had to overcome her fears, and literally re-create herself. The following are her step, by step directions of how to overcome fear, for example if a person is afraid of storms they would: -

1. Name the fear and reject that false belief.
Out loud declare, “Today I renounce and reject fear of storms. I renounce the lie of being unsafe during storms.”

2. Reprogram your brain with the positive thoughts opposite of your fear.
I will never again fear storms. I have been safe during them many times before, and I will always be safe, and secure, during storms.

3. Rebuild new neuron transmitters in your brain by taking positive action, the opposite of your fear.

During the next storm stand safely on your front porch throughout the storm, facing it, and overcoming the fear. Saying, “I am fine this is just another storm, I will always be perfectly fine when storms come. I am safe, secure, and relaxed during storms.”

Keep doing these steps until you feel more relaxed the fear will subside, it will lessen as you face it, sometimes it takes a few times, but the more you face that fear the less power it will hold, each time it will lessen until it leaves.

With thanks to FaithReel

From You Tube:

Often called "The New Einstein," Olympia LePoint is best known for her role as an award-winning rocket scientist, science entertainer and educator driving to help people overcome fear. As an internationally-recognized science leader, LePoint helped launch NASA's Endeavour, Discovery, Columbia, and Atlantis Space Shuttles. She successfully helped launch 28 Space Shuttle Missions into Space.

She won The 2004 Boeing Company Professional Excellence Award, and The 2003 Engineer of the Year "Modern Day Technology Leader" Award.

Mathaphobia: How You Can Overcome Your Math Fears and Become a Rocket Scientist is her debut self-help, educational book designed to empower adults and help students ace STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, Math) education.

As CEO of OL Consulting Corporation, LePoint publishes educational books and executive produces Science TV shows.

With her extensive experience as a math professor, LePoint educates in person and through the media. As a top-five graduate, LePoint holds a Bachelors of Science Degree in Mathematics, and a Master's of Science Degree in Applied Mathematics from California State University Northridge.

LePoint advises for educational PBS TV programming with Wind Dancer Films, coaches through keynote speeches and workshops, and is as a media personality for TV, Radio, News Publications and Social Media outlets.

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Our Life With The Neanderthals Was No Brief Affair

Far from wiping out Neanderthals overnight, modern humans rubbed along with their shorter and stockier cousins for thousands of years, giving plenty of time for the two groups to share ideas - and have sex.

The most accurate timeline yet for the demise of our closest relatives, published on Wednesday, shows Neanderthals overlapped with present-day humans in Europe for between 2,600 and 5,400 years before disappearing about 40,000 years ago.

Pinpointing how and when the Neanderthals became extinct has been tough because the mainstay process of radiocarbon dating is unreliable for samples that are more than 30,000 years old, due to contamination.

The latest six-year project by researchers at the University of Oxford used modern methods to remove contaminants and accurately date nearly 200 samples of bone, charcoal and shell from 40 important archaeological sites across Europe.

The data showed that Neanderthals vanished from Europe between 39,000 and 41,000 years ago - but rather than being replaced rapidly by modern humans, their disappearance occurred at different times across sites from the Black Sea to the Atlantic.

"Now that we are using better techniques, the picture is becoming much more clear in terms of the process by which Neanderthals disappeared from Europe," said lead researcher Tom Higham. "Our results suggest there was a mosaic of populations."

Scientists already know from DNA evidence that there was some interbreeding between the two groups, although it is not clear whether this occurred once or many times. Recent studies have suggested between 1.5 and 2.1 percent of the DNA of modern non-African human populations originates from Neanderthals.

"In a way, our close cousins, as Neanderthals are, aren't extinct," according to Higham. "They carry on in us today."
Paleoanthropologist Chris Stringer of the Natural History Museum in London, who was not involved in the research, said the new findings were "striking" and backed up the idea that modern humans and Neanderthals may have learnt from each other.

He believes interbreeding probably first occurred in Asia soon after modern humans began to leave Africa around 60,000 years ago, so the latest evidence indicates the two populations may have been in some kind of contact for up to 20,000 years - much longer than in Europe alone.

Not so dim-witted

Many scientists now reject the notion that Neanderthals were dim-witted brutes and point to evidence of use of symbolic objects, which may have been learnt from modern humans.
The Oxford team dated a number of items from sites of so-called transitional stone tool industries - viewed as either the work of the last of the Neanderthals or early modern humans - and found they were all between 40,000 and 45,000 years old, indicating a period of possible cultural exchange.

Interestingly, they found no evidence that Neanderthals and modern humans lived particularly closely together. Rather, Neanderthals probably survived in dwindling populations in pockets of Europe before dying out altogether.

It is unclear what killed off the Neanderthals, although theories include an inability to adapt to climate change and increased economic competition from more agile modern humans.
While the latest work provides the most robust timeline so far of the last days of the Neanderthals, there are still gaps in coverage, particularly in Siberia and eastern regions of Eurasia. That is something the researchers plan to address in follow-up investigations.

"Ultimately, our aim is to create kind of movies that show the arrival and departure of different sub-species of humans across Europe," Higham said in an interview filmed in his lab. "We are part-way towards that but there is a still a lot more work we can do."

Some scientists have hypothesized that late-surviving groups of Neanderthals lived in places such as Gibraltar after 40,000 years ago, but the latest dating provides no evidence of this, according to the Oxford team, whose findings were published in the journal Nature.

With thanks to English Alarabya